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Contents

µ¼¡¡¶Á ¹¼Ïò¶«¡¡ÀîÓñÁú¡¡iv
Abbreviations xv
Acknowledgements xvi
Series Editors’note xviii
1¡¡Learning Oriented Assessment: An overview 1
1.1¡¡The organisation of this volume 7
1.2¡¡What is learning? 8
1.3¡¡What is language learning? 9
1.4¡¡What is to be learned? 10
1.5¡¡The roles of assessment in learning 11
1.6¡¡Aligning large-scale and classroom assessment 14
1.7¡¡In summary 15
2¡¡The roots of Learning Oriented Assessment 17
2.1¡¡Cambridge English and Learning Oriented Assessment 18
2.2¡¡Origins and emphases of learning-oriented approaches 18
2.3¡¡Defining learning-oriented assessment: Process, policy or
principles? 27
2.4¡¡Specific learning-oriented methods 32
3¡¡What is learning? 35
3.1¡¡Constructivism 35
3.2¡¡An appropriate model of cognition and learning 37
3.3¡¡Task-based interaction 39
3.4¡¡Roles of teachers and learners 47
3.5¡¡In summary 54
4¡¡What is language learning? 56
4.1¡¡Languages as a special case 56
4.2¡¡The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages 57
4.3¡¡Natural language acquisition 59
4.4¡¡Second Language Acquisition research 60
4.5¡¡In summary 66
5¡¡What is to be learned? 67
5.1¡¡The desired outcomes of learning 67
5.2¡¡The nature of language proficiency: Construct definition 71
5.3¡¡The content of learning: Curricular objectives 75
5.4¡¡In summary 76
6¡¡The role of large-scale assessment in learning 78
6.1¡¡Proficiency testing: The importance of criterion reference 79
6.2¡¡Scale construction 80
6.3¡¡Item Response Theory 82
6.4¡¡Item banking 83
6.5¡¡Performance assessment 85
6.6¡¡Validity and reliability of large-scale assessment 86
6.7¡¡Large-scale assessment: Evidence of and for learning 90
6.8¡¡In summary 91
7¡¡Learning-oriented assessment in the classroom 93
7.1 The nature of classroom learning-oriented assessment 93
7.2 Domain-specific and generalisable learning skills 95
7.3 Learning-centred and content-centred act