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Unit 12 Text
     Human Errors in Road Accidents
     A comprehensive study of road safety (Treat et al. , 1977) found that human
error was the sole cause in 57% of all accidents and was a contributing factor in
over 90%. In contrast, only 2.4% were due solely to mechanical fault and only
4.7% were caused only by environmental factors. Other studies have reported simi-
lar results.
     Why do humans make so many driving errors? The answer to this question lies
in the inherent limitations of human information processing. In sum, humans must
rely on three fallible mental functions: perception, attention and memory.
     HUMAN INFORMATION PROCESSING OVERVIEW
     People driving down a highway are bombarded with a steady flow of informa-
tion. Most of the information is visual input, the road itself, other vehicles, pedes-
trians, signs, the passing scenery, etc. Moreover, the driver may be processing
other information sources such as auditory input (listening to the radio, talking on
a cell phone, carrying on a conversation with another passenger), or internal input
(remembering directions or planning what to make for dinner).
     If the visual information flow is low, there may be enough mental resource to
carry 'on all tasks simultaneously.  But attentional demands may exceed supply
when:
     1. The flow becomes a torrent (driving fast)
     2. The information is low quality (poor visibility)
     3. Resources must be focused on a particular subset of information (a car close
ahead)
     4. The driver's capacity is lowered by age, drugs, alcohol or fatigue.
     There may not be enough mental resource for all tasks. The driver then "at-
tends" only a subset of the available information, which is used to make decisions

and to respond. All other information goes unnoticed or slips from memory.
     In sum, information processing works like this: the information from the visu-
al and possibly auditory environment is detected by the senses ("preattentive
stage") while other information may be recalled from memory. If there is too much
to process, the driver attends an information subset and the rest is ignored ( "atten-
tive stage"). Lastly, the driver makes a decision and possibly a responses based on
the attended information.
     Research has shown that accidents occur for one of three principle reasons.
     The first is perceptual error. Sometimes information was below the threshold
for seeing-the light was too dim, the driver was blinded by glare, or the pedestrian's
clothes had low contrast. In other cases, the driver made a perceptual misjudgment
(a curve's radius or another car's speed or distance).
      The second is that the information was detectable but that the driver failed to
attend/notice because his mental resources were focused elsewhere. Often times, a
driver will claim that s/he did not "see" a plainly visible pedestrian or car. This is
entirely possible because much of our information processing occurs outside of
awareness. Mack and Rock (1998) have amazingly shown that we may be less likely
to perceive an object if we are looking directly at it than if it falls outside the center
of the visual field.  This "inattentional blindness" phenomenon is doubtless the
cause of many accidents.
      Lastly, the driver may correctly process the information but fail to choose the
correct response or make the correct decision yet fail to carry it out ("I meant to hit
the brake, but I hit the gas"),
      DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF INFORMATION PROCESSING STAGES
     Preattentive Stage and Attention
      The Figure 12-1 below schematically depicts the two information processing
stages, "preattentive" (or "ambient") and "attentive" (or "focal").
      This preattentive stage has four important properties:
       1. It is automatic and occurs without volition, so we are unaware that we are
doing it.
      2. Information remains in sensory memory for only a small fraction of a sec-
ond. If not penetrating the attention filter, it is then permanently lost.
      3. It only analyzes as are far as basic properties of color, size, location, etc.

4. It b, asa very large capacity. It can process the entire visual field simultane-
ously.
    This last property is criti-
cal, because the vast quantity of
information is too large for sub-
sequent  processing  stages  to
handle.  There needs to be a
mechanism for selecting an in-
formation subset for more de-
tailed analysis. This mechanism
is  called  "attention"  and  is
sometimes depicted as a spotlight that focuses processing on a selected part of the
visual field--it defines an area of 3-D for detailed examination. Attention is usually
viewed as a filter the driver uses to focus his limited mental resources to important
parts of the visual field and to exclude extraneous parts.
     Attentive Stage and Working Memory
     Sensory Information passed through the attention filter resides temporarily in a
processing stage called "working" or short-term memory. Working memory is like a
scratch pad where people collect the information (visual, auditory, knowledge
stored in the permanent long-term memory) needed to interpret sensory input and
to make decisions. Working memory, however, has two severe limits that often
play a role in accidents:
     1. Information remains in working memory for a short time, maybe 30 sec-
onds, if it is not used or refreshed. The driver could refresh working memory.
     2. Older Information may be flushed out at any time by newer input.
     Working memory has very low capacity, so new information may chase out
old. For example, several studies show that recall of road signs is remarkably poor.
The researchers stopped drivers a few hundred yards after a road sign and found
that recall was as low as 18%, although the signs had been seen only seconds be-
fore. Presumably, new information had pushed the signs out of working memory.
Since working memory records all sorts of information, a few words from radio or
cell phone, could also fill it up and cause other objects to be forgotten.