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Chapter 1Welding Technology Fundamental1 1ª±1Modern Engineering Structural Material1 1ª±2Mechanical Property of Metal Material3 1ª±3Thermophysical Property of Metal Material4 1ª±3ª±1Specific Heat4 1ª±3ª±2Thermal Expansion5 1ª±3ª±3Thermal Conductivity5 1ª±3ª±4Melting Point or Melting Range5 1ª±3ª±5Thermionic Work Function6 1ª±4Principal Types of Heat Treatment of Steel6 1ª±5Arc Physics6 1ª±5ª±1Stability of Electric Arc6 1ª±5ª±2Stability of AC Arc 8 Chapter 2Arc Welding Power Source16 2ª±1Classification of Power Source16 2ª±1ª±1AC Power Supplies16 2ª±1ª±2DC power supplies19 2ª±1ª±3Inverse Source of Arc Welding20 2ª±2Electrical Characteristics of Power Source21 2ª±2ª±1Constant Voltage21 2ª±2ª±2Constant Current21 2ª±2ª±3Combined Constantª²Current and Constantª²Voltage Characteristics22 2ª±3Selecting and Specifying a Power Source22 Chapter 3Arc Welding Process25 3ª±1Shielded Metalª²Arc Welding25 3ª±2Gas Shieldedª²Arc Welding27 3ª±2ª±1Specific Advantages of Gasª²shielded Arc28 3ª±2ª±2Types of Gasª²Shielded Arc Processes28 3ª±2ª±3Gas Tungsten Arcª²Tig28 3ª±2ª±4Gas Metal Arcª²Mig31 3ª±2ª±5CO2 Welding34 3ª±2ª±6Pulsed Arc Welding35 3ª±3Submerged Arc Welding Fundamentals of the process36 3ª±3ª±1Definition and general description36 3ª±3ª±2Principles of operation37 3ª±4Plasma Arc Welding38 3ª±4ª±1Keyhole Action39 3ª±4ª±2Arc Shaping39 3ª±4ª±3Operating Data39 3ª±4ª±4Applications40 3ª±4ª±5Summary40 Chapter 4Other Welding Methods41 4ª±1Resistance Welding41 4ª±1ª±1Introduction41 4ª±1ª±2Resistance Spot Welding(RSW)42 4ª±1ª±3Projection Welding44 4ª±1ª±4Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW)45 4ª±1ª±5Upset Butt Welding 46 4ª±1ª±6Flash Butt Welding47 4ª±2Friction Stir Welding49 4ª±2ª±1Introduction49 4ª±2ª±2Principles50 4ª±2ª±3Friction Stir Tool51 4ª±2ª±4Friction Stirring Imperfections55 4ª±3Laser Beam Welding56 4ª±3ª±1Introduction56 4ª±3ª±2Principles58 4ª±3ª±3Metals Welded60 4ª±3ª±4Machines60 4ª±3ª±5Parameters and Technology62 4ª±4Electron Beam Welding63 4ª±4ª±1Introduction63 4ª±4ª±2Principles64 4ª±4ª±3Variations66 4ª±4ª±4Equipment67 4ª±4ª±5Safety68 Chapter 5Welding Metallurgy69 5ª±1Chemical Reactions in Welding69 5ª±1ª±1Overview69 5ª±1ª±2Gasª²Metal Reactions70 5ª±1ª±3Slagª²Metal Reactions 79 5ª±2Weld Metal Solidification85 5ª±2ª±1Epitaxial Growth at Fusion Boundary85 5ª±2ª±2Nonepitaxial Growth at Fusion Boundary86 5ª±2ª±3Competitive Growth in Bulk Fusion Zone87 5ª±2ª±4Effect of Welding Parameters on Grain Structure88 5ª±2ª±5Weld Metal Nucleation Mechanisms89 5ª±2ª±6Grain Structure Control94 5ª±3The Microstructure and Properties of Heatª²affected Zone97 5ª±3ª±1Welding Thermal Cycle98 5ª±3ª±2The Microstructure Changesin the HAZ98 5ª±3ª±3Hardness Distribution in the HAZ101 5ª±3ª±4Welding Cracks in the HAZ105 Chapter 6Weldability of Material109 6ª±1Weldability of Material and Testing Method109 6ª±1ª±1Weldability of Material109 6ª±1ª±2Weldability Evaluation and Test Method112 6ª±2Weldability of low carbon steel114 6ª±2ª±1Metallurgy of the liquid weld metal114 6ª±2ª±2Solidification and solidification cracking119 6ª±2ª±3Stress intensification,embrittlement and cracking of fusion welds below the solidus121 6ª±2ª±4Lamellar tearing124 6ª±2ª±5Reheat Cracking125 6ª±3Weldability of Magnesium and Its Alloys128 6ª±3ª±1Alloys and Welding Procedures128 6ª±3ª±2Oxide Film Removal128 6ª±3ª±3Cracking128 6ª±3ª±4Mechanical Properties129 6ª±3ª±5Corrosion Resistance and Fire Risk129 Chapter 7Residual Stresses,Distortion and Fatigue130 7ª±1Residual stresses130 7ª±1ª±1Development of residual stresses130 7ª±1ª±2Analysis of Residual Stresses131 7ª±2Distortion133 7ª±2ª±1Cause133 7ª±2ª±2Remedies133 7ª±3Fatigue134 7ª±3ª±1Mechanism134 7ª±3ª±2Fractography135 7ª±3ª±3Sª²N Curves135 7ª±3ª±4Effect of Joint Geometry135 7ª±3ª±5Effect of Stress Raisers136 7ª±3ª±6Effect of Corrosion137 7ª±3ª±7Remedies137 7ª±4Case Studies138 7ª±4ª±1Failure of a Steel Pipe Assembly138 7ª±4ª±2Failure of a Ball Mill138 Chapter 8Automation of Welding140 8ª±1Introduction of Automatic Welding System140 8ª±2Flexible Automation of Welding143 8ª±3ARC Welding Robots145 8ª±3ª±1Introduction145 8ª±3ª±2Robot Manipulator Configuration147 8ª±3ª±3Robot Welding Application151 8ª±3ª±4Buying a Welding Robot154 8ª±3ª±5Robot Safety154 8ª±4Controls for Automatic Arc Welding156 8ª±4ª±1Automatic Welding Controllers156 8ª±4ª±2Robot Controllers159 8ª±4ª±3Teaching the Robot159 8ª±4ª±4Robot Memory161 8ª±4ª±5Weld Execution161 8ª±5Sensors and Adaptive Control162 8ª±5ª±1Introduction162 8ª±5ª±2Contact Sensors164 8ª±5ª±3Noncontact Sensor Systems165 8ª±6Tooling and Fixtures168 Chapter 9Welding Quality Inspection171 9ª±1Welding Defects171 9ª±1ª±1Definition and Types171 9ª±1ª±2Cracks171 9ª±1ª±3Porosity172 9ª±1ª±4Solid Inclusion172 9ª±1ª±5Lack of Fusion and Inadequate or incomplete penetration173 9ª±1ª±6Imperfect Shape173 9ª±2Nonª²destructive Testing174 9ª±2ª±1Radiographic Testing174 9ª±2ª±2Ultrasonic Testing(UT)177 9ª±2ª±3Magnetic Particle Inspection(MPI)178 9ª±2ª±4Liquid Penetrant Testing(PT)179 9ª±3Destructive Test182 9ª±3ª±1Tension Tests182 9ª±3ª±2Bend Tests182 9ª±3ª±3Charpy Tests183 9ª±3ª±4Hardness Testing183 9ª±4Radiograph Interpretation184 9ª±4ª±1General Welding Discontinuities184 9ª±4ª±2Other Discontinuities188 References190