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1 the semiconductor industry

introduction

birth of an industry

the solid-state era

integrated circuits (ics)

process and product trends

moore¡¯s law

decreasing feature size

increasing chip and wafer size

reduction in defect density

increase in interconnection levels

the semiconductor industry association roadmap

chip cost

industry organization

stages of manufacturing

six decades of advances in microchip fabrication processes

the nano era

review topics

references

2 properties of semiconductor materials and chemicals

introduction

atomic structure

the bohr atom

the periodic table of the elements

electrical conduction

conductors

dielectrics and capacitors

resistors

intrinsic semiconductors

doped semiconductors

electron and hole conduction

carrier mobility

semiconductor production materials

germanium and silicon

semiconducting compounds

silicon germanium

engineered substrates

ferroelectric materials

diamond semiconductors

process chemicals

molecules, compounds, and mixtures

ions

states of matter

solids, liquids, and gases

plasma state

properties of matter

temperature

density, specic gravity, and vapor density

pressure and vacuum

acids, alkalis, and solvents

acids and alkalis

solvents

chemical purity and cleanliness

safety issues

the material safety data sheet

review topics

references

3 crystal growth and silicon wafer preparation

introduction

semiconductor silicon preparation

silicon wafer preparation stages

crystalline materials

unit cells

poly and single crystals

crystal orientation

crystal growth

czochralski method

liquid-encapsulated czochralski

float zone

crystal and wafer quality

point defects

dislocations

growth defects

wafer preparation

end cropping

diameter grinding

crystal orientation, conductivity, and resistivity check

grinding orientation indicators

wafer slicing

wafer marking

rough polish

chemical mechanical polishing

backside processing

double-sided polishing

edge grinding and polishing

wafer evaluation

oxidation

packaging

wafer types and uses

reclaim wafers

engineered wafers (substrates)

review topics

references

4 overview of wafer fabrication and packaging

introduction

goal of wafer fabrication

wafer terminology

chip terminology

basic wafer-fabrication operations

layering

patterning

circuit design

reticle and masks

doping

heat treatments

example fabrication process

wafer sort

packaging

summary

review topics

references

5 contamination control

introduction

the problem

contamination-caused problems

contamination sources

general sources

air

clean air strategies

cleanroom workstation strategy

tunnel or bay concept

micro- and mini-environments

temperature, humidity, and smog

cleanroom construction

construction materials

cleanroom elements

personnel-generated contamination

process water

process chemicals

equipment

cleanroom materials and supplies

cleanroom maintenance

wafer-surface cleaning

particulate removal

wafer scrubbers

high-pressure water cleaning

organic residues

inorganic residues

chemical-cleaning solutions

general chemical cleaning

oxide layer removal

room temperature and ozonated chemistries

water rinsing

drying techniques

contamination detection

review topics

references

6 productivity and process yields

overview

yield measurement points

accumulative wafer-fabrication yield

wafer-fabrication yield limiters

number of process steps

wafer breakage and warping

process variation

mask defects

wafer-sort yield factors

wafer diameter and edge die

wafer diameter and die size